THE SAMI PEOPLE

It still comes as a surprise to many people that the Nordic countries have an indigenous population that in so many ways has so much in common with, for example, the Native Indians of North America. The Sami people were the original inhabitants of northern Scandinavia and Russia's Kola Peninsula. Two thousand years age, the Sami inhabited all of present-day Finland.
A recent study from the University of Umeå claims that although most of Europe's ethnic groups are related to each other if one goes back 1000-2000 years in history, the Sami have had a unique development for tens of thousand of years and demonstrate vast genetic differences from other known ethnic groups.

Today the number of Sami is estimated at 60 000. The area of Sami settlement, called Sapmi, extends nowadays over the entire Scandinavian arctic region and stretches along the mountain districts on both sides of the Norwegian-Swedish border. Today the S ami are a minority in their region of settlement. In a few municipalities of northern Finland and Norway, they constitute a majority.

We are talking here about the minority who used to be called "lapps" - with reindeer husbandry, hunting and fishing as their traditional basic occupations. The term Lapp is being replaced by the indigenous minority's own name for itself, Sabme or dialects thereof, Same in Norway and Sweden, Saamelainen in Finland. "Lapp" is often perceived as a derogatory term, a legacy from the past when certain authorities tried to create simplified racial definitions of the Sami and other segments of the population.

Why the Sami are not so well-known in the rest of the world could be attributed to the fact that they are not a visible minority in that they are not significantly different in their physical appearance from other Nordic peoples.

Their culture and identity is rather based on a common cultural heritage and language.

The Sami language is unrelated to Swedish and Norwegian, but instead belongs to the Finno-Ugric family. Many, but far from all, reindeer breeding Sami speak the language fluently.

There are practically no monolingual Sami speakers today. It is common for the Sami to be bilingual with Sami and Swedish or Sami and Norwegian, and the far north of Sweden even trilingual with Sami, Swedish and Finnish.

The Sami language, bearer of all the legends of Sami history, is an unsurpassed medium for describing the phenomena associated with herding reindeer across northerly mountains and forests. Because of its wealth of concepts related to natural conditions, terrain and different kinds of weather, these subjects can be described far more precisely in Sami than in Swedish. There are ten or more words to describe snow and the characteristics of snow cover. On the other hand, the paucity of words that describe the phenomena of modern society is a problem that naturally occupies Sami linguists today. A permanent pan-Nordic council on the Sami language is working on these and related issues.

Another complication that affects the whole minority when they use the Sami language in their own media and other contexts is that the language is not uniform throughout Sapmi. There are major differences between its three main branches - East, Central and South Sami - and beyond this, there are various dialects.

The oral storytelling tradition has always played a central role in Sami Culture, and Sami music is also part of this tradition. The traditional yoik, a kind of song-poem, often composed and performed in the isolation of the mountains as a way of remembering events and feelings, lives on both in its traditional form and as an element of modern Sami music as performed by Mari Boine, for example. The Sami oral poetry is strikingly similar to the poetry of the Inuits of Greenland and the songs of Native American Indians.

Many of the traditions and customs o the Sami disappeared when they were colonized. The society rested on the good will of the gods and the wisdom of the elders. The elders were consulted and obeyed on secular matters. When it came to contacts with the gods or other nonearthly powers, the noaidi or shaman was the man to talk to.

The noaidi were persecuted when the nation states converted the Sami to Christianity as one of the means to claim sovereignty over their territory. The noaidi were forced to renounce their old religion and surrender their sacred drums to the missionaries who travelled around converting the Sami.

The trademark above all others of the Sami today is the reindeer. No one can say for sure how long the Sami have used reindeer. The Roman historian Tacitus mentioned the Sami as early as 98 A.D. In the 9th century the Sami were described by a Norwegian chieftain, Ottar, as reindeer breeders.

During the first stages of reindeer husbandry, an intensive form of this occupation was common. The Sami captured small numbers of wild reindeer and tamed them as draft or pack animals and milk producers. Everything that the reindeer could provide was utilized, not only for food but also for making shoes, clothing and tools. Reindeer hides and leather goods were also important trading commodities.

During the Middle Ages, a more (arranging form of reindeer husbandry was developed. A Sami family group, or siida, took possession of an entire reindeer herd and limited their freedom of movement by enclosing them between mountains. This form of reindeer husbandry has been predominant for the last two centuries, until recent times combined with nomadism and semi-nomadism.

In 1751 the border between Sweden and Norway was drawn. In the Scandinavian mountain chain, it largely followed the ridges dividing those streams that eventually flowed either westward or eastward. Many Sami with winter homes in Sweden had summer pastures for their reindeer on lands that ended up on the Norwegian side of the border. This is still true and the seasonal migrations are allowed to continue. An amendment to the border treaty, which was surprisingly broad-minded for that period, is sometimes called the "Sami Magna Carta." In it, both countries confirmed the traditional rights of the Sami in their region.

In modern reindeer husbandry, the main commercial product is meat, although cured reindeer leather is still being used to some extent for such everyday items as boots or handbags. Sami art objects and handicrafts, or duodje, are made today by a comparatively large number of skilled producers. They often use pieces of reindeer antlers and leather, along with such wood materials as twisted birch stems or birch outgrowths, or bits of root from birch, willow and spruce trees.
Today in the northern areas of Scandinavia you may see herds of reindeer that are seemingly wild. But this is a deception. The reindeer are prevented from wandering too far by fences tens of kilometers long, located in strategic places. And all the reindeer have a brand on one ear, showing that they have an owner.

When frosty nights return in August and the grazing becomes less plentiful on the treeless peaks, it is time to move toward the lower fells, just below the tree line. The Sami gather the reindeer in enclosed pastures and the big bulls are the first to be separated off for slaughter. Nowadays, when all reindeer meat for commercial sale must be slaughtered under controlled conditions, these enclosures are often located next to roads, so that the rest of the journey to the slaughterhouse can take place by truck.

After the mating season in October, it again becomes necessary to gather and sort the reindeer before driving them in November or December to winter pastures in the coniferous forest. In the north these migrations may be 300-400 km long. In these winter pastures lichen from old trees is an essential part of the reindeer diet. Because of modern forestry, it is in short supply. Sometimes the reindeer are instead kept in enclosures and are fed hay and other commercial fodder during the winter.

Although the migrations of the reindeer follow centuries-old patterns, today's reindeer husbandry has few similarities with that of the old days. Modern technology has arrived. Snow scooters have replaced the reindeer sleighs and skis. Cross country motorcycles are popular. Sometimes the Sami use helicopters for surveillance. And you will be hard pressed to find a Sami herdsman without a two-way radio.

All this has simplified the lives of reindeer breeders and greatly improved their standard of living. No longer is it necessary to lead a nomadic life and stay in a simple but with few possessions.
But progress also has its negative side. A majority of Sami ended up outside of reindeer husbandry, more or less cut off from the source of their common culture and language. And the motorization of reindeer husbandry has led to many occupational illnesses such as lifting- and vibration-related injuries.

Some Sami are now looking into the old methods again and Icelandic horses have been imported to replace the motorized vehicles. This could revitalize what are regarded as unique cultural elements of reindeer husbandry - its close contact with animals and nature.

There is of course increasing concern that as the general lifestyle of the Sami comes to resemble that of mainstream Scandinavians that there is not much Sami culture to hold onto. Young reindeer breeders often find their role models outside Sami culture. The allure of mass culture is strong, and even when it is not forced on them, the "Scandinavianization" of Sami youth is a fact of life. As it is a large majority of the Sami people work outside the traditional Sami occupations and many live an urban life. Most Sami children attend ordinary schools. Special Sami schools do exist but have difficulty recruiting a sufficient number of pupils.

The relationship between the Sami and the governments of their respective country has not always been an easy one. It cannot be disputed that the governments have not always behaved as a benevolent father but rather as colonizer and exploiter of the natural wealth of Sapmi. Historically the governments encouraged farmers to move north. Those who settled in the land of the Sami were exempted from taxes, and also from military service for a time.

In modern times, mechanized forestry, hydro-electric power plants nd mining operations have been the chief forms of interference with the traditional Sami occupations of reindeer breeding, hunting and fishing. However, today the Sami are proudly conscious of their heritage. Not too long ago they, like other indigenous people around the world, felt discriminated against. They were politically subdued, culturally despised and economically marginal with a total lack of self confidence. Today the Sami have their own parliament in Norway and in Sweden. They have achieved new linguistic rights as well as state support for a variety of cultural activities.

Many people living in reindeer breeding areas regard Sami land rights and related hunting and fishing rights as an indication that the Sami are a privileged minority who are favoured by public agencies at their expense. Many conflicts regarding land use are difficult to solve. Forest owners regard reindeer as a threat to their newly planted forest. There are complaints about reindeer eating plants in people's gardens and creating a traffic hazard. However in the majority of cases Sami and other Swedes live in a mutual, positive dependence on one another.

The Sami culture does not seem to be under an immediate threat of disappearing. There is a new awakening among the Sami and several organizations are working on different levels to keep the flame burning. Because the Sami people are spread across several countries at the top of Europe, international cooperation is obviously essential. One forum for this purpose is the Nordic Sami Council which works to bring about equitable conditions in the Nordic countries and promotes its work by adopting joint Sami policy programs. Since this Council joined the World Council of Indigenous Peoples in 1977, it has also developed contacts with counterparts around the world which have proved important.

In addition the Nordic Sami Institute in Kaurokeino, Northern Norway, pursues research in Sami issues. There is support in some Sami quarters for turning this into a pan-Nordic Sami university.
However the essential ingredient in Sami culture is reindeer breeding and its survival is crucial. Although six out of seven Sami work outside traditional Sami occupations today, reindeer breeding is what continues to give their culture its distinctive identity and vitality. And although reindeer husbandry is hard-pressed, it is surviving and growing. Not even the Chernobyl disaster was able to force very many people out of reindeer husbandry, even in those parts of Sapmi that received the brunt of the radioactive fallout.

Scandinavian Press, Issue 4, 1997